individual differences in the learning potential of human beings - projector for school education

As far as we know, the genetic basis that has guided the development of the human brain in the past 50,000 years has not changed fundamentally.
However, due to the cognitive potential of human beings, human beings have greatly changed the world in the past few centuries.
They have invented technical equipment, institutions that manage cooperation and competition, and symbolic systems such as scripts and mathematics as tools for reasoning.
The superior learning ability of human beings enables newborns to adapt to the world in which they were born;
However, there are huge individual differences in human learning ability, which becomes obvious at school at the latest.
Cognitive psychology develops memory and information processing models to try to explain how humans learn (
General perspective)
Variation between individuals (
Differential perspective
It has always been the focus of psychometric intelligence research.
Although both studies are conducted independently, they tend to be more consistent as the concepts of working memory and knowledge structure are studied.
This review begins with the state of the statementof-the-
The artistic research of human information processing and its potential in academic learning.
Then, a brief overview of the history of psychometric intelligence research is presented and recent work on the role and nature of intelligence in modern society is presentednurture debate.
Finally, in the conclusions of this review, promising approaches to integrating General and divergent views will be discussed.
In psychology textbooks, learning is often understood
Term changes in mental performance and behavior due to experience.
As shown in the four criteria, learning is not just a temporary use of information or a single adaptation to a particular situation.
Instead, learning is associated with changes in psychological representation that can be expressed in behavior changes.
Mental and behavioral changes generated from learning must be distinguished from changes derived from internal processes such as maturity or illness.
Instead, learning occurs as an interaction with the environment and is initiated to adapt individual needs to the outside world.
From an evolutionary point of view, creatures are born in a world that is constantly expected to complete tasks (e. g.
Get food, avoid threats, mate)
Survive as individuals and species.
The brains of all types of creatures have instincts that help respond to the needs of the environment in which their species adapts.
However, since the environment is variable, the brain must be flexible enough to optimize their adaptation by establishing new associations between various stimuli or between stimuli and responses.
In the case of classical conditioned reflections, one stimulus sends a signal of another stimulus, thus allowing expectations of positive or negative consequences.
In the case of operating condition reflection, the behavior will change due to its consequences.
By regulating learning, humans are constantly reacting and adapting to the environment, often unconscious.
However, human learning is more important than regulation. according to our knowledge, regulation makes us different from other species.
All creatures must learn how to get food in their environment, but only humans cook and invent many ways to store and preserve food.
While many animals run faster than humans and are better climbers, the construction and use of vehicles or ladders is unique to humans.
There is occasional evidence that
Human species continue to the next generation, but this is different from the tools that humans have developed to help them change the world.
In thousands of years, the shift from the use of stone wedges hunting to the invention of wheels, cars and iPhones proves the unique spiritual flexibility of mankind, and as far as we know, in the last 50,000 years, the genes that guide human brain development have not changed significantly.
This means that as a species, humans have genetically adapted to the world's needs that existed at about 48,000 BC.
What is special about human information processing?
The answer to this question is usually related to the unique resources of consciousness and symbolic reasoning ability, which are first practiced in language.
Starting from here, over the past few decades, a large number of insights have been compiled about human cognition, and now there can be a more comprehensive view of human learning.
Learning is reflected in the knowledge representation processed in memory.
The encoding, storage and retrieval of information has been
Storage model of human memory described in figure 1.
Sensory memory is the earliest stage to process a large amount of continuous input information from the visual, auditory and other senses. To allow goal-
Targeted behavior and selective attention, only a small amount of information is transmitted to working memory, which is responsible for temporary maintenance and manipulation of information in cognitive activities.
Working memory can control attention to achieve goals
Conscious information processing.
It's long.
Term Memory considered to have unlimited capacity.
Here, the information obtained through experience and learning can be stored in different modes and symbol systems (e. g.
, Language, text, mathematical notation system, pictorial, musical prints). The multi-
The store model of human information processing is not-
Road Street and Dragon Street
Term memory is not considered a storage room or a hard object
The disk that remains the same after the information is stored.
A more appropriate long model
Term memory is a kind of self.
Organize a network in which verbal terms, images, or programs are represented as interrelated nodes with different Association strengths.
Working memory regulates incoming information from sensory memory and from long-term memory.
Very strong incoming stimuli (e. g.
, A lot of noise or dazzling light)
It can interrupt working memory activity, which may be a dangerous signal.
However, to a large extent, working memory filters out irrelevant and distracting information to ensure that the necessary goals are achieved without interference.
This means that the working memory constantly selects the incoming information and compares it with the long-
Term memory and prepare a response to the completion requirements of the environment or self-Requirementsset goals.
Inappropriate and inappropriate information from the senses and the long term
The term memory must be suppressed while the appropriate and appropriate information from both sources must be updated.
The power of a person's pursuit of a specific goal has an effect on the degree to which control is suppressed.
In the case of intentional learning, working memory can prevent irrelevant information more than in the case of distraction.
Less suppression control makes it possible to learn unplanned and unexpected (i. e.
, Incidental learning).
These working memory activities have permanently changed to long-
Memorize terms by adding new nodes and changing the intensity of associations between them.
Figure 1 lists the different formats in which knowledge can be represented. ;
Some of them are more closely related to sensory input, while others are more closely related to abstract symbolic representation.
In cognitive psychology, learning is associated with modification of knowledge representation that allows for better utilization of available working memory resources.
Knowledge of procedure (knowing how)
Production-based operations are supported-rule system.
Due to repeated practice, the association between these production rules is strengthened and will eventually lead to a series of coordinated operations that can automatically activate each other with minimal or unnecessary working memory resources.
This learning process not only allows execution of tasks that program knowledge customizes for more efficient execution, but also releases working memory resources that can be used to process additional information in parallel.
Meaningful learning requires the construction of declarative knowledge (knowing that)
, Expressed in the symbol system (
Language, text, math, or vision
Space representation).
Learning leads to a recomposition of declarative knowledge, such as dividing multiple unrelated blocks of knowledge into several meaningful units.
Copying the digital series "91119893101990" presented orally exceeds the working memory capacity unless you detect two important dates in German history: the day when the Berlin Wall collapsed: November 9, 1989 and Unification Day: October 3, 1990.
Both dates are stored and can be stored from long-
Term memory can free up working memory resources by dividing 14 single units into two units.
Memory artists can reproduce dozens of figures presented orally, and they build a very complex knowledge base that blocks the input information.
Learning is also reflected in the expansion of declarative knowledge using concept formation and reasoning.
Linking the three concepts of "animals, agricultural products and milk" has formed the basic concept of cattle.
Usually, concept and super (e. g. , animal)
And subordinates (e. g. , cow, wombat)ordering.
This provides a basis for deductive reasoning to produce meaningful knowledge.
If a person only knows that the wombat is an animal, then she can still infer that it needs food and oxygen.
According to the personal learning history, the concept representation can contain a lot of changes.
The concept of cows by farmers or veterinarians is associated with more concepts than "animals, agricultural products, milk" and is integrated into a wider network of animals.
In most farmers for a long time
The term memory, "cow" may have a strong connection with "pig", while the vet should have a particularly close connection with other chewing animals.
A person's conceptual network determines the choice and representation of input information and determines the overview of professional knowledge.
For many academic fields, the first is STEM (
Science, technology, engineering, mathematics)
It has been proved that experts and novices who use the same word may have completely different expressions of what they mean.
This is a convincing proof in physics, especially in the field of mechanics.
Children can be regarded as universal newbies;
Thus, as the example of an "island" shows, their daily concept is based primarily on features, whereas educated adults usually consider defining features.
For young children, it mainly refers to a warm place where you can take a vacation.
In contrast, the adult island concept does refer to a land that is completely surrounded by water but not large enough to be considered a continent.
The shift from features to defining features is called a "conceptual shift" and promoting this learning is a major challenge in school education.
Students' understanding of the core concepts in academic topics may change radically (e. g.
, Concept of weight in physics).
Children in elementary school often think that a pile of rice has weight, but they may also deny that a grain of rice has weight.
Given that young children think that the concepts of "weight" and "weight" are equivalent, it is clear that the incredible answer is understandable.
So if a grain of rice is placed on the back of an ant, the children tend to agree that it has weight.
Due to their education, students usually understand that the weight of an object is determined by the balance, not necessarily by the personal feeling.
However, the properties that represent weight as an object are still incompatible with scientific physics in Newton's sense, and weight in Newton's sense is conceptualized as a relationship between objects.
Understanding weight in this sense requires an interconnected network of knowledge, including concepts of force, gravity, and mass (among others).
As a result of classroom teaching, students should acquire the program and conceptual knowledge of the subjects taught.
While programs are functions of repetition and practice, it is not so simple to obtain advanced concepts that are consistent with state-of-the-art science.
To support this conceptual learning, insights from cognitive learning research have been integrated into educational research and are increasingly providing information for classroom practice.
Several teaching methods have been developed and evaluated that support students to restructure and refine their knowledge, thereby promoting appropriate conceptual understanding, including self-understanding
Explain, contrast cases and metacognitive problems.
Cognitive research also provides information for the development of "classification of learning objects.
The tool is widely used in curriculum development and teacher training programs to support consistency in content
Specific learning objectives, means of classroom practice, assessment, etc.
Classification recognizes the difference between procedural knowledge and conceptual knowledge, including six cognitive processes (listed in Fig. )
How knowledge translates into observable achievements.
However, what makes human beings an efficient learner is beyond the general memory function currently discussed.
Similar to other creatures, humans do not enter the world as empty slabs, but are equipped with such
Core Knowledge (Fig. ).
Evidence of the core knowledge comes from a priority observation experiment for infants who were initially accustomed to a particular stimulus or scene.
Then, show the baby in a specific way a second scene that is different from the first one.
If he or she looks at this stimulus more than he looks-
At the end of the habitual phase of the first stimulus, this suggests that the baby can differentiate between stimuli.
This paradigm helps to determine whether infants detect violations of principles that make up the physical world, such as the reliability of objects, in which case the object cannot occupy the same space as another object.
Core Knowledge allows privileged learning and behavioral functions, with little effort required, and it also guides the unique ability of symbolic communication and reasoning of human beings, first and foremost language learning.
There is no doubt that human beings are born with the ability to learn language, including a sense of speech, grammar, and social aspects of language.
Core Knowledge can be used as a starting point for acquiring content knowledge generated by cultural development.
This has been studied in detail for digital and mathematical reasoning.
Two core systems were detected in infants.
As early as 6 months old, babies showed an approximate representation of the size of the number, which allowed them to distinguish the two sizes according to the proportion.
At the same age, the exact representation system for different individuals allows infants to track changes in small sets of up to three elements.
Mathematical ability is the result of combining the two core systems and linking them to the digital words provided by their respective cultures.
Now the Arab place names numerical system, which is common in most parts of the world, was developed only a few 100 years ago.
Only after the number "0" was shipped from India to Europe through the Arab countries did we have the prerequisites for developing the decimal system.
The Arab digital system opens the way to academic mathematics.
Cultural transformation based on the invention symbol system is the key to higher mathematics.
Today's children should understand concepts in years of education that are at the heart of human development.
The central content areas of the high school mathematics curriculum, such as calculus, developed less than three centuries ago.
Given the differences between the Arabic and Roman digital systems, children born before 2000 cannot take advantage of their digital core knowledge as today's children do.
The core knowledge about navigation is designed to guide the acquisition of the field of geometry, which involves many academic fields.
The cornerstone of cultural development is the invention of writing, in which language is expressed by letters or other marks.
The script is a fairly new cultural invention that dates back about 5,000 years, while the human genome appeared about 50,000 years ago.
Obviously, unlike speaking, humans are not directly prepared for writing and reading.
Today, though, most 6-year-
In the course of 1st years of education, older children were literate without major obstacles.
Humans have many skills to help with writing and reading, first of all language and auditory and visual perception and painting.
When the script was invented, these initially independent work resources were added, and teaching children to write and read at school mainly meant supporting the development of the association between these resources.
Some of the core knowledge inherent to human beings, such as digital knowledge and geometric knowledge, is also found in animals, but as far as we know, no other animal has invented mathematics.
Only human beings can develop a higher level of cognition using core knowledge, which is a prerequisite for culture, technology and civilization.
In addition, the unique function of human working memory is a prerequisite for the integration of the original independent representation system.
However, the full potential of working memory does not exist at birth, but is mature during childhood and does not change until puberty.
Children under two years of age cannot properly convert the representation of the target and memory symbol.
Summing up what has been discussed so far, there are two sources of human excellence in learning.
The first is the function of working memory.
The purpose resource, which allows to accommodate several psychological manifestations at the same time for further manipulation.
The second is the ancient corpus of modular core knowledge of space, quantity, physics and the social world.
Working memory allows to link this knowledge with language, numbers, and other symbolic systems, which provides the basis for reasoning and knowledge acquisition in the academic field, if appropriate learning opportunities are provided.
Both resources are human-born, but they are also sources of individual differences that will be discussed in the following sections.